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Green energy – solar, sun

1. INTRODUCTION
In the minds of most people, target = "_self" title = "Battery Fujitsu Lifebook T4220 "> Fujitsu T4220 Battery power is a clean energy source when the lights with televisions, refrigerators, air conditioners air and other devices, maybe we did not realize the power of environmental damage, energy production in coal on the environment is real significant damage. China is now the number of powers of the global emissions of greenhouse emission gases, while production of conventional power generation using coal, oil, natural gas, energy production, China has become carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases, a major source emissions, but also a large number of emission gases such as carbon dioxide sulfur. When using conventional electricity, we are in fact an indirect polluters, because we have created the demand for electricity, and thus indirectly on the environment caused by pollution. At the same time, we are also victims pollution.

The 21st century, humanity will face the realization of economic and social development Fujitsu LifeBook T5010 Battery, major challenges with limited resources and the requirements of environmental protection in accordance with strict limitations on economic development has become two points the world. The energy issue will become more prominent. The energy shortage in most countries of the world energy supply shortages can not meet economic development needs. Long term, proven oil reserves in the world can use in the year 2020, natural gas can not last more or less up 2040, even if abundant coal reserves can be maintained Ersanbainian.

Since the combustion of coal, oil and other fuels fossil, every year hundreds of thousands of tons of noxious sulfur and thrown into the sky, the atmosphere has been seriously polluted the environment, directly affecting the health of residents and the quality of life, the formation of acid rain in some areas, serious pollution of soil and water. Fuels fossil fuels produces large amounts of greenhouse gases caused by the greenhouse effect caused by global climate change. This matter was returned to the global agenda international organizations have held numerous meetings and to limit FPCBP95, FPCBP95ap, FPCBP155 CO2 emissions of other greenhouse gases. Therefore, to solve energy problems of mankind to achieve sustainable development can not rely on scientific and technological progress, large-scale development and use of energy clean and renewable.

Solar energy has the nature reserves "unlimited" solar radiation energy per second is approximately 1.6 × 1023KW, less than a year of total solar energy reaching the Earth's surface of coal equivalent for a total of about 1.892 × 1013 100 000 000 tons, the world's proven reserves of primary energy ten thousand times. Compared with the finite nature of conventional energy, solar energy has unlimited reserves nature "of the inexhaustible." For other sources of energy, Solar energy for most regions of the world with the existence of universality, that might be drawn. This is the classic energy-deficient countries and regions that solve energy problems in perspective. The energy use energy solar and wind energy is clean, the tidal energy and other clean energy sources bps2 VGP, as the development and use of time produce almost no pollution. Economics can be used two ways of looking at the economics of solar energy use. First, inexhaustible solar energy, but also to receive energy solar without imposing a tax "can be anywhere access, two at the current level of technological development, the use of solar energy is not only possible and feasible. In this perspective, solar energy will become the power structure in the world assume a great responsibility, an ideal source of alternative energy.

2. Solar Cells
No. 1 50 of the arrival of practical silicon solar cells, solar panels, opened the curtain, but also opened a new chapter for human use of solar energy. Because as solar cells in the space of 60 years, from the 70s in the application of low technology solar photovoltaics is developing rapidly. Since 1990 the global market sales of solar photovoltaic power generation at an average annual increase 16%, the VGP-bps2a, VGP-BPS2B The total production capacity reached 800 MW power, equivalent to consumption of 20 million U.S. households annual energy. In 1997 global sales solar cells increased by 40%, became a source of more rapid growth in the world of energy.

2.1 The impact LW technology issues
large-scale application of photovoltaic cells that affect the main obstacle is its high manufacturing costs. In many electricity generation technologies, solar PV is still the most expensive a form, therefore, the development of technology of electricity, the main objective of the sun through the improvement of existing manufacturing processes, the structure design of the new battery and the development of battery materials New to reduce manufacturing costs, improve efficiency, etc. photoelectric conversion. In recent years, show the changing industry trends PV, the evolution characteristics of the VGP-BPS2C, VGP-BPL2: increasing production, reducing the efficiency of conversion costs, applications are expanding. In 1998, global production of solar cells of over 150 MW, more than double production in 1994. The monocrystalline silicon solar cells, the average efficiency 15% laboratory efficiency reached 24.4%, the performance of polycrystalline silicon solar cells up to 14%, 19.8% maximum efficiency, stability of amorphous silicon solar cell efficiency, a single exit 6 ~ 9% Lab 12% maximum efficiency multi-junction cells 8 ~ 10%, the high efficiency of 11.83% of the laboratory.

Recently, the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Gretzer M • Development of titanium dioxide solar cells photoelectric conversion rates as high as 33%, and successfully introduced to replace the amorphous organic electrolyte, so it is cheaper than similar a large glass of you are not much better and more convenient to use. It is hoped that technology could improve and expand the market, the cost of photovoltaic meta = "_self" Title = "Battery for SONY VGP-BPL2C"> Sony VGP-BPL2C cells would be considerably reduced. Can be prepared, due to in 2010 less the cost of solar cells is expected to photovoltaic technology for large-scale development.

2.2 Development of new photovoltaic technologies
In recent years, around the solar battery materials, the conversion efficiency and stability issues, such as photovoltaic technology is developing rapidly. investigation of crystalline silicon solar cells are cells of high-efficiency monocrystalline silicon and low-cost cells polycrystalline silicon. Restrictions on monocrystalline silicon solar cell conversion efficiency of the main technical aspects VGP-BPS8, VGP-bps8a obstacles are: the surface of the network cell shading effects, the loss of surface reflection of light, the light conduction losses in the worst losses surface recombination loss.

To resolve these problems, in recent years developed a series of new technology, mainly to the following: a single-layer film anti-reflective, laser etching technology buried shipping online slot, the technology of Sweden, back to where contact electrode to overcome the surface of the gate line shading issues; efficient back reflector technology, optical absorption techniques. As these new technologies has invented many new types of batteries, which greatly improved the conversion efficiency of solar cells VGP-bps8b as laser engraving lines underground deposit of the network, and new technologies, purification of high conversion efficiency of solar cells crystalline silicon to a maximum of 24.4%.

MAnother property of the evolution of thin film photovoltaic technology is the solar cells made significant progress in a variety of new solar cells are emerging. conversion efficiency of crystalline silicon solar cell can be high, but cost has been difficult to decrease significantly, while the thin layer solar cell manufacturing low cost has a very attractive prospect wide. A few years ago, the use of multilayer films BPL8 VGP-structure, low material quality silicon has made the cost of solar cells immersed in 80 percent, is expected to 1o years for this technology commercially.

And the efficient development of new solar cell technology is to reduce the cost of photovoltaic cells a viable way to another in recent years, new high-performance batteries keep coming:

copper selenide Steel (CuInSe2, CIS) thin film solar cells VGP-bpl8a: 1974 IEC batteries in the United States came in 1993, the U.S. National Renewable Energy Laboratory for making intrinsic conversion efficiency of 16.7% due to the CIS solar cells at low cost (film thickness Silicon only 1 / 100) can increase the conversion efficiency of increased bandwidth (30% predicted single crystal, polycrystalline 24%) is not light-induced down against radiation can be good, etc, all countries are competing for research and development, and actively explore the broad application of the techniques mass production.

Silicon – If the structure of tandem solar cells: Adoption of a-Si and narrow band gap materials, Cascade is the efficient use of sunlight for long waves, more efficient solar energy conversion in amorphous silicon cells in a good way. Low cost, low power consumption energy, a process VGP-BPS9, VGP-BPS9 / B small, cheap and effective, and so on.

chemical beam epitaxy (EPC) technology multi-junction cells produce III-V compounds Sun: III-V compounds (eg GaAs, InP) has a high photoelectric conversion efficiency, these materials can match the multi-layer conversion solar cell efficiency by 35% or more. multi-layered structure that is easy to use regulation of the CPE, and reduces the cost, ultra-efficient.

Nanoscale photovoltaic batteries: 1991, M. Grätzel Swiss research team led by Dr, aqueous solution for powder coating of nano-TiO2 and contains a variety of organic dyes and transition metal glass and other materials to produce ceramic pigments sensitive solar cells, called nano-battery. The calculations show that the conversion efficiency can be made at least 12% of low-cost VGP BPS9 / s VGP-bps9a batteries. The battery is used for much of the outside of the building, offers a broad perspective.

3. The development of solar cells
The progress of solar cells may be of its performance indicators, production, prices, etc. to assess. Performance solar cells have open circuit voltage circuit, in short, the fill factor, the photoelectric conversion efficiency at the top of which the most important indicator is the efficiency of conversion efficiency is photoelectric light energy into electrical energy.

silicon solar cell solar cells and the main can be divided into two VGP-categories bps9a / b compound semiconductor solar cells. Below are described separately.

3.1 silicon solar cells
Silicon is the most abundant element on Earth, but also non-toxic, with its production of high performance solar cells, making it the most suitable material for the production of semiconductor solar cells. In 1997, global production of solar cells around 120 MW, of which over 99% of solar cells silicon. In silicon solar cells can be divided into the silicon, polycrystalline silicon and amorphous silicon solar VGP-BPL9, VGP-cells bps10 three categories.

1. cell monocrystalline silicon and polycrystalline silicon
monocrystalline silicon and polycrystalline silicon solar cells is a P-type (or n-type) substrate silicon by phosphorus (or boron) is the proliferation of P / N junction and the system is. The monocrystalline silicon solar cells high efficiency, long life, excellent performance, but the cost is high and limited to the size of crystals, the surface of a single cell is difficult to do much for the relatively large diameter of 10 ~ 20cm dish. Cast polysilicon cells is made of polycrystalline silicon ingot slicing, cheaper than monocrystalline silicon cells, individual cells can also be done relatively VGP-bps10 / b bps10 VGP-/ s large (eg 30 cm by 30 cm square pieces), but due to complicating factors such as edges grain is less efficient than silicon cells.

Now, monocrystalline silicon and polycrystalline silicon cells based on the following research aspects:
(A) a buried layer of passivation of electrode surface, the optimization process secret door again the electric field and electrodes contact to reduce the loss of compounds with photo-collection efficiency improvement company, thereby improving the efficiency of solar cells. University South Wales, Australia, the lab pro-green using these methods, has created silicon solar cells under AM1.5 outstanding recognition in the world 24% of the maximum VGP bps10a, Vgp-bps10a/befficiency.

(2) with excellent anti-China film, etching the surface contrast their way back electrodes to reduce the brightness of the light and transmission losses, improve efficiency of solar cells.

(3) growth directional solidification process polycrystalline silicon ingot casting instead of silicon, the estimate back positive electrode silver paste, the technology of aluminum paste printing screen to improve silicon cutting, sanding, polishing and other processes, doing everything possible to reduce costs to improve efficiency of solar cells. At present the most VGP-great weight of silicon ingots bpl10 reached more than 270 kilograms.

(4) cells are also very thin silicon research and development. The calculations indicate that if, metal, ceramics, glass substrates were prepared by low-cost, thickness 30 ~ 50? M supermarket polysilicon thin film high quality, then the process of manufacturing solar cells can be further simplified, costs can be significantly reduced. Therefore, silicon polycrystalline thin film solar cells becomes an access point.

monocrystalline and polycrystalline silicon solar cell production is currently Annual worldwide reached 120 MW. The highest efficiency silicon solar cells up to 18% ~ 24%. Aviation and aerospace, the high-quality solar cells used in the AMO in terms of efficiency is about 13.5% ~ 18%, while the ground used for the mass production of solar cell efficiency especially in AM1 11% ~ 18% Sony PCGA-BP1N, Sony PCGA-BP2EA or more.

2. The amorphous silicon solar cells
As the absorption coefficient Sun amorphous silicon at large, and therefore no-chang thin silicon solar cells can be done in the overall thickness of the film of silicon is only 1-2? m, a monocrystalline silicon cells and polycrystalline silicon thickness (0.5 mm) 1 / 500 Therefore, resource consumption, lower production of silicon cells amorphous.

amorphous silicon solar cells is generally used as methods of discharging high frequency of light to the decomposition of silane gas (SiH4) in deposits of. deposition temperature is low due to decomposition (200? or almost), energy consumption therefore less when the cost of production is relatively low, and this method is suitable for mass production, the surface of a single cell could have done much (eg 0.5mX1.0m), pretty neat. Another feature Sony VGP-BP2EA, Sony PCGA-BP2NX amorphous silicon cells is a Blu-ray player to respond to many, in general, even under fluorescent light can work, is widely used as electronic computers and computer power of Palm, with an estimated consumption of about 10 million per month and one. Those advantages, while the amorphous silicon cells lots in the past 10 years to bring about the rapid pace of development, and in 1997 Global production is estimated to have reached more than 30 MW.

If due to instability and internal structure of a large number of atoms of hydrogen tank, with the effect of fatigue of light (Staebler Wronski), so that stability of amorphous silicon solar cells after long-term problems. In the past 10 years, after efforts to study, while improved, but not completely solve the problem so that food and not volume.

amorphous silicon crystalline silicon due to the lack of distribution of atoms in deficit rules of nature. As a union simple n p-Si /, the mainstream is often characteristic properties yin without correction, would be unable solar energy to produce Sony PCGA-BP2R, Sony PCGA-BP2S cells. For a good correction of the characteristics of the diode should be in the layer p and n-layer is inserted between the thick i intrinsic to stop the tunneling current of amorphous silicon solar cells in general a pin structure. To improve

The efficiency and improve stability and sometimes in a pin / pin / pin structure such as multi-layer laminated batteries, or insert buffer layer.

The solar cell research amorphous silicon are mainly on improving the amorphous nature of the film itself, to reduce the density of defects, the layers of precision thickness design the structure of the battery and control to improve the interface between layers of government, to achieve high efficiency and high stability.

The current single-junction cells amorphous silicon are able to ensure maximum PCGA-BP2SA, Sony PCGA-BP2T about 14.6% efficiency, a substantial number of production can reach 8% ~ 10%. The maximum efficiency of the battery cell can reach 21.0%.

3.2 The compound semiconductor solar cells
In semiconductor solar cells compounds, research and current applications are AAC, InP, CuInSe2 and CdTe solar cells. As the semiconductor compound or less toxic, easily provoked environmental pollution, which occurs under GAAP BP2V, Sony PCGA-BP3T levels are often used for special occasions.

1. GaAs solar cells
potassium arsenide (GaAs) solar cells can be of high efficiency, maximum efficiency in the laboratory has achieved over 24% overall efficiency space solar cells are used in 18% ~ 19.5%. GaAs solar cells is currently the most widely used method in liquid phase epitaxy or metal deposition organic chemical vapor (MOCVD) technology to prepare, so that the costs are high, production is limited, reduce costs and increase productivity has become a focus. GaAs solar cells are currently mainly used on spacecraft.

Currently, only the technology of preparation of crystal silicon film is a cost to adults, low, and therefore silicon substrates, MOCVD technology for the manufacture of epitaxial GaAs solar cells reduce the cost of GaAs solar cells promising approach. At present, the efficiency of the battery has reached 20%. However, if the crystal lattice GaAs constant related to the biggest tour of the quality epitaxial growth, epitaxy PCGA-BP4V, target = "_self" title = "Battery for SONY PCGA-BP505"> Sony-network layer does not match BP505 PCGA serious, difficult to obtain high quality epitaxial layer. To do so, often begin by growing a Si substrate layer network with constant difference between the crystals of GaAs and Ge buffer layer small, then the growth of GaAs epitaxial layer, for example Si / Ge / GaAs Heteroepitaxial Structure the battery is constantly changing. Layer thickness control, appropriate changes in the architecture, which allows the energy of photons of different wavelengths sun light have been used effectively to present the multi-layered structure of the efficiency of GaAs solar cells by about 40%.

2. InP cells solar: indium phosphide solar cells have performed very well against radiation, much attention in the applications space, the current effectiveness of the battery reaches 17% ~ 19%.

3.CuInSe2 polycrystalline thin film solar cells: the efficiency of the VGP-BPL1, battery Sony VGP-BPL4 reached about 17.6% and stable performance, such as polycrystalline thin-film batteries are very promising. But the most complex components, manufacturing process repeatability is poor, affecting their development.

Also, CD / CdTe solar cell efficiency has reached 15.8%, but the battery is toxic and easy to carry pollution of the environment.

4. The application of solar cells
Satellite Telecommunications is usually square to use different solar and battery power, water, stars in the battery and the satellite. In the past, the extensive use of silicon photovoltaic solar cells square. In today's most advanced silicon photovoltaic efficiency to 15%, but the battery can no longer meet the requirements of large platform, under development and use of cells GaAs solar. The current single-junction GaAs solar cells conversion efficiency up to 18% in general, double junction solar cells of GaAs 21-23% more. This battery is not only effective, but resistance to VGP-BPL4A radiation, temperature BPL5A as Sony VGP-high space. It is currently developing multi-junction GaAs efficiency solar cell conversion is expected to reach 30%. To further improve the efficiency of solar cells die, they are studying the use of the concentration of solar panels, increase the amount of solar energy, so that the solar constant has increased to more than one. More commonly used satellite battery lasting nickel-cadmium batteries, with the increase of the satellite, is developed using nickel-metal hydride batteries. The Ni-MH and NiCd deep discharge the large capacity.

For Deep Space 1? Become a true interplanetary probe, Air Force Research Laboratory has made six key technologies, which are:

1. Luz solar phalanx. The future of solar panels using composite structures, connecting the different parts of the cable line will be eliminated, solar panels with plastic hinge. The use of thin film solar cells VGP-BPL11 Sony VGP-BPL12, the energy supply of 116 kg watts, while the current system 40-50 watts. Multi-junction solar cells photovoltaic thin film easier to start in orbit instead. Light "smart" structure can be automated to eliminate vibration and thermal effects.

2. flexible power supply integrated signaling systems. Technology vacuum coating, so that the battery cells and battery components and thin film flexible photovoltaic barrier layer connected to form a multi-satellite bus. More from the battery installed in the other sub-systems around.

3. multifunctional structure.

4. ultra-high density circuit.

5. The micro-electro-mechanical.

6. Optical light great power.

The United States October 24, released in 1998, the Deep Space 1? Interplanetary probe. Set type solar cells using optical experiences. The solar cell array is, in fact, only 13% of the area is covered with solar film, also with a lens surface 720 of filler using a linear array filled lenses had collected all the rays the sun for these batteries. Since the battery is low and the VGP-BPL13, BPL14 Sony VGP-battery light lens of a glass, solar cells to reduce weight and the matrix, and prices have changed less. Deep Space 1, "2.6 kW phalanx four solar panels, the size of 1.1mx1.6m, the total weight of 58 kg. To strengthen ability to protect against radiation, the area of the battery in the bulk crystal can be carried out. Two solar cells themselves, are stacked, can be 0.4? M ~ 0.85? M in the efficiency of the broadband spectrum of energy conversion of 22% or more is expected. The disadvantage of this solar cell refers to a small square a little mistake, the capacity will significantly reduce battery Inspiron 6000.

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